Ephedra

Targets (13)Biointeractions (13)

Identification

Name
Ephedra sinica root
Commonly known or available as Ephedra
Accession Number
DB01363
Type
Biotech
Groups
Nutraceutical
Description

Ephedra is an alkaloid chemical compound traditionally obtained from the plant Ephedra sinica. The sale of ephedra-containing supplements intended to increase muscle weight or promote weight loss was banned in the United States in 2004 due to the risk for adverse effects and a lack of evidence for clinical effectiveness. The drug is still sold in Canada in OTC formulations for respiratory conditions associated with bronchial asthma.

Synonyms
  • Cao ma huang root
  • Chinese ephedra root (ephedra sinica)
  • Chinese jointfir
  • Ephedra
  • Ephedra ma-huang root
  • Ephedra root (ephedra sinica)
  • Ephedra sinica root
  • Ephedrae radix
  • Hemp yellow root
  • Ma huang gen (ephedra sinica)
  • Mahuanggen (ephedra sinica)
Over the Counter Products
NameDosageStrengthRouteLabellerMarketing StartMarketing End
Unlock Additional Data
CitrivateCapsuleOralGreat Canadian Lifestyles Co.2001-07-132002-09-03Canada
Decongestionnant - Cap OrlCapsuleOralLaboratoire Lalco Inc.1997-01-202002-09-05Canada
Dp FormulaTabletOralPep Products Inc.2000-03-012003-01-13Canada
Dp Formula - 133mg TabTabletOralPep Products Inc.1994-12-312003-01-13Canada
EphedraCapsuleOralKaizen Inc.1997-04-221999-03-15Canada
Ephedra - Cap 300mgCapsuleOralNutrion Health & Fitness Inc.1996-12-311999-08-28Canada
Ephedra -tab 100mgTabletOralVita Health Products Inc1997-09-082002-07-31Canada
Ephedra Herbal Formula TabletTabletOralPharmetics (2011) Inc.1999-06-202006-07-27Canada
Florasun Ephedra Cap 250mgCapsuleOralLaboratoire Lalco Inc.1995-12-312002-09-05Canada
Formula RF CapsulesCapsuleOralTwin Laboratories Inc.1999-10-282005-08-30Canada
Additional Data Available
  • Application Number
    Application Number

    A unique ID assigned by the FDA when a product is submitted for approval by the labeller.

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  • Product Code
    Product Code

    A governmentally-recognized ID which uniquely identifies the product within its regulatory market.

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Mixture Products
NameIngredientsDosageRouteLabellerMarketing StartMarketing End
Dr. Miller's Formula No. 1Ephedra sinica root (280 mg) + Willow bark (280 mg)TabletOralLite & Rite Inc.1994-12-311998-06-09Canada
Herbal Cold and Flu Formula - TabEphedra sinica root (8 mg) + Salix alba bark (3 g)TabletOralQuest Vitamins A Div Of Purity Life Health Products1995-12-311999-08-08Canada
International/Other Brands
Sinueaze
Categories
UNII
D0P20CT40D
CAS number
Not Available

Pharmacology

Indication

Ephedra is indicated for the temporary relief of shortness of breath, tightness of chest, and wheezing due to bronchial asthma. For the temporary relief of bronchial asthma in over-the-counter formulations.

Pharmacodynamics
Not Available
Mechanism of action

The alkaloids ephedrine and pseudoephedrine are the active constituents of Ephedra. Pseudoephedrine is used in over-the-counter decongestants. Derivatives of ephedrine are used to treat low blood pressure, but alternatives with reduced cardiovascular risk have replaced it for treating asthma. Ephedrine is also considered a performance-enhancing drug and is prohibited in most competitive sports. Ephedrine is a sympathomimetic amine - that is, its principal mechanism of action relies on its direct and indirect actions on the adrenergic receptor system, which is part of the sympathetic nervous system. Ephedrine increases post-synaptic noradrenergic receptor activity by (weakly) directly activating post-synaptic α-receptors and β-receptors, but the bulk of its effect comes from the pre-synaptic neuron being unable to distinguish between real adrenaline or noradrenaline from ephedrine. The ephedrine, mixed with noradrenaline, is transported through the noradrenaline reuptake complex and packaged (along with real noradrenaline) into vesicles that reside at the terminal button of a nerve cell. Ephedrine's action as an agonist at most major noradrenaline receptors and its ability to increase the release of both dopamine and to a lesser extent, serotonin by the same mechanism is presumed to have a major role in its mechanism of action.

TargetActionsOrganism
ASodium-dependent dopamine transporter
negative modulator
Humans
ASodium-dependent noradrenaline transporter
negative modulator
Humans
AAlpha-2A adrenergic receptor
agonist
Humans
AAlpha-2B adrenergic receptor
agonist
Humans
AAlpha-2C adrenergic receptor
agonist
Humans
AAmine oxidase [flavin-containing] A
inhibitor
Humans
AAmine oxidase [flavin-containing] B
inhibitor
Humans
ABeta-1 adrenergic receptor
agonist
Humans
ABeta-2 adrenergic receptor
agonist
Humans
ABeta-3 adrenergic receptor
agonist
Humans
ASodium-dependent serotonin transporter
negative modulator
Humans
ASynaptic vesicular amine transporter
inhibitor
Humans
AChromaffin granule amine transporter
inhibitor
Humans
Absorption
Not Available
Volume of distribution
Not Available
Protein binding
Not Available
Metabolism
Not Available
Route of elimination
Not Available
Half life
Not Available
Clearance
Not Available
Toxicity
Not Available
Affected organisms
  • Humans and other mammals
Pathways
Not Available
Pharmacogenomic Effects/ADRs
Not Available

Interactions

Drug Interactions
This information should not be interpreted without the help of a healthcare provider. If you believe you are experiencing an interaction, contact a healthcare provider immediately. The absence of an interaction does not necessarily mean no interactions exist.
DrugInteraction
Unlock Additional Data
1-benzylimidazoleThe risk or severity of hypertension can be increased when Ephedra sinica root is combined with 1-benzylimidazole.
2,4-thiazolidinedioneThe therapeutic efficacy of 2,4-thiazolidinedione can be decreased when used in combination with Ephedra sinica root.
2,5-Dimethoxy-4-ethylamphetamineThe risk or severity of hypertension can be increased when Ephedra sinica root is combined with 2,5-Dimethoxy-4-ethylamphetamine.
2,5-Dimethoxy-4-ethylthioamphetamineThe risk or severity of hypertension can be increased when Ephedra sinica root is combined with 2,5-Dimethoxy-4-ethylthioamphetamine.
4-Bromo-2,5-dimethoxyamphetamineThe risk or severity of hypertension can be increased when Ephedra sinica root is combined with 4-Bromo-2,5-dimethoxyamphetamine.
4-MethoxyamphetamineThe risk or severity of hypertension can be increased when Ephedra sinica root is combined with 4-Methoxyamphetamine.
5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamineThe risk or severity of hypertension can be increased when Ephedra sinica root is combined with 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine.
7,8-Dichloro-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinolineThe risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when 7,8-Dichloro-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline is combined with Ephedra sinica root.
AbediterolThe risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Ephedra sinica root is combined with Abediterol.
AcarboseThe therapeutic efficacy of Acarbose can be decreased when used in combination with Ephedra sinica root.
Additional Data Available
  • Extended Description
    Extended Description

    Extended description of the mechanism of action and particular properties of each drug interaction.

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  • Severity
    Severity

    A severity rating for each drug interaction, from minor to major.

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  • Evidence Level
    Evidence Level

    A rating for the strength of the evidence supporting each drug interaction.

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  • Action
    Action

    An effect category for each drug interaction. Know how this interaction affects the subject drug.

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Food Interactions
Not Available

References

General References
  1. Gurley BJ, Wang P, Gardner SF: Ephedrine-type alkaloid content of nutritional supplements containing Ephedra sinica (Ma-huang) as determined by high performance liquid chromatography. J Pharm Sci. 1998 Dec;87(12):1547-53. [PubMed:10189265]
  2. Abourashed EA, El-Alfy AT, Khan IA, Walker L: Ephedra in perspective--a current review. Phytother Res. 2003 Aug;17(7):703-12. [PubMed:12916063]
  3. Haller CA, Benowitz NL: Adverse cardiovascular and central nervous system events associated with dietary supplements containing ephedra alkaloids. N Engl J Med. 2000 Dec 21;343(25):1833-8. [PubMed:11117974]
  4. Bent S, Tiedt TN, Odden MC, Shlipak MG: The relative safety of ephedra compared with other herbal products. Ann Intern Med. 2003 Mar 18;138(6):468-71. [PubMed:12639079]
External Links
PubChem Substance
46504840
RxNav
1724424
PharmGKB
PA164777031
Drugs.com
Drugs.com Drug Page
PDRhealth
PDRhealth Drug Page
Wikipedia
Ephedra
AHFS Codes
  • 92:01.00* — Herbs and Natural Products
  • 12:12.00 — Sympathomimetic (Adrenergic) Agents

Clinical Trials

Clinical Trials
PhaseStatusPurposeConditionsCount
2CompletedPreventionCesarean Section / Nausea / Vomiting1

Pharmacoeconomics

Manufacturers
Not Available
Packagers
Not Available
Dosage forms
FormRouteStrength
TabletOral
CapsuleOral
TabletOral
Prices
Not Available
Patents
Not Available

Properties

State
Solid
Experimental Properties
Not Available

Taxonomy

Classification
Not classified

Targets

Details1. Sodium-dependent dopamine transporter
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Yes
Actions
Negative modulator
General Function
Monoamine transmembrane transporter activity
Specific Function
Amine transporter. Terminates the action of dopamine by its high affinity sodium-dependent reuptake into presynaptic terminals.
Gene Name
SLC6A3
Uniprot ID
Q01959
Uniprot Name
Sodium-dependent dopamine transporter
Molecular Weight
68494.255 Da
References
  1. Sulzer D, Sonders MS, Poulsen NW, Galli A: Mechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: a review. Prog Neurobiol. 2005 Apr;75(6):406-33. [PubMed:15955613]
  2. Wee S, Ordway GA, Woolverton WL: Reinforcing effect of pseudoephedrine isomers and the mechanism of action. Eur J Pharmacol. 2004 Jun 16;493(1-3):117-25. [PubMed:15189772]
  3. Rothman RB, Vu N, Partilla JS, Roth BL, Hufeisen SJ, Compton-Toth BA, Birkes J, Young R, Glennon RA: In vitro characterization of ephedrine-related stereoisomers at biogenic amine transporters and the receptorome reveals selective actions as norepinephrine transporter substrates. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2003 Oct;307(1):138-45. Epub 2003 Sep 3. [PubMed:12954796]
  4. Fleckenstein AE, Volz TJ, Riddle EL, Gibb JW, Hanson GR: New insights into the mechanism of action of amphetamines. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 2007;47:681-98. [PubMed:17209801]
  5. Haughey HM, Brown JM, Wilkins DG, Hanson GR, Fleckenstein AE: Differential effects of methamphetamine on Na(+)/Cl(-)-dependent transporters. Brain Res. 2000 Apr 28;863(1-2):59-65. [PubMed:10773193]
Details2. Sodium-dependent noradrenaline transporter
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Yes
Actions
Negative modulator
General Function
Norepinephrine:sodium symporter activity
Specific Function
Amine transporter. Terminates the action of noradrenaline by its high affinity sodium-dependent reuptake into presynaptic terminals.
Gene Name
SLC6A2
Uniprot ID
P23975
Uniprot Name
Sodium-dependent noradrenaline transporter
Molecular Weight
69331.42 Da
References
  1. Wee S, Ordway GA, Woolverton WL: Reinforcing effect of pseudoephedrine isomers and the mechanism of action. Eur J Pharmacol. 2004 Jun 16;493(1-3):117-25. [PubMed:15189772]
  2. Sulzer D, Sonders MS, Poulsen NW, Galli A: Mechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: a review. Prog Neurobiol. 2005 Apr;75(6):406-33. [PubMed:15955613]
  3. Rothman RB, Vu N, Partilla JS, Roth BL, Hufeisen SJ, Compton-Toth BA, Birkes J, Young R, Glennon RA: In vitro characterization of ephedrine-related stereoisomers at biogenic amine transporters and the receptorome reveals selective actions as norepinephrine transporter substrates. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2003 Oct;307(1):138-45. Epub 2003 Sep 3. [PubMed:12954796]
  4. Fleckenstein AE, Volz TJ, Riddle EL, Gibb JW, Hanson GR: New insights into the mechanism of action of amphetamines. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 2007;47:681-98. [PubMed:17209801]
  5. Haughey HM, Brown JM, Wilkins DG, Hanson GR, Fleckenstein AE: Differential effects of methamphetamine on Na(+)/Cl(-)-dependent transporters. Brain Res. 2000 Apr 28;863(1-2):59-65. [PubMed:10773193]
Details3. Alpha-2A adrenergic receptor
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Yes
Actions
Agonist
General Function
Thioesterase binding
Specific Function
Alpha-2 adrenergic receptors mediate the catecholamine-induced inhibition of adenylate cyclase through the action of G proteins. The rank order of potency for agonists of this receptor is oxymetazo...
Gene Name
ADRA2A
Uniprot ID
P08913
Uniprot Name
Alpha-2A adrenergic receptor
Molecular Weight
48956.275 Da
References
  1. Sulzer D, Sonders MS, Poulsen NW, Galli A: Mechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: a review. Prog Neurobiol. 2005 Apr;75(6):406-33. [PubMed:15955613]
  2. Kobayashi S, Endou M, Sakuraya F, Matsuda N, Zhang XH, Azuma M, Echigo N, Kemmotsu O, Hattori Y, Gando S: The sympathomimetic actions of l-ephedrine and d-pseudoephedrine: direct receptor activation or norepinephrine release? Anesth Analg. 2003 Nov;97(5):1239-45. [PubMed:14570629]
  3. Rothman RB, Vu N, Partilla JS, Roth BL, Hufeisen SJ, Compton-Toth BA, Birkes J, Young R, Glennon RA: In vitro characterization of ephedrine-related stereoisomers at biogenic amine transporters and the receptorome reveals selective actions as norepinephrine transporter substrates. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2003 Oct;307(1):138-45. Epub 2003 Sep 3. [PubMed:12954796]
Details4. Alpha-2B adrenergic receptor
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Yes
Actions
Agonist
General Function
Epinephrine binding
Specific Function
Alpha-2 adrenergic receptors mediate the catecholamine-induced inhibition of adenylate cyclase through the action of G proteins. The rank order of potency for agonists of this receptor is clonidine...
Gene Name
ADRA2B
Uniprot ID
P18089
Uniprot Name
Alpha-2B adrenergic receptor
Molecular Weight
49565.8 Da
References
  1. Sulzer D, Sonders MS, Poulsen NW, Galli A: Mechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: a review. Prog Neurobiol. 2005 Apr;75(6):406-33. [PubMed:15955613]
  2. Kobayashi S, Endou M, Sakuraya F, Matsuda N, Zhang XH, Azuma M, Echigo N, Kemmotsu O, Hattori Y, Gando S: The sympathomimetic actions of l-ephedrine and d-pseudoephedrine: direct receptor activation or norepinephrine release? Anesth Analg. 2003 Nov;97(5):1239-45. [PubMed:14570629]
  3. Rothman RB, Vu N, Partilla JS, Roth BL, Hufeisen SJ, Compton-Toth BA, Birkes J, Young R, Glennon RA: In vitro characterization of ephedrine-related stereoisomers at biogenic amine transporters and the receptorome reveals selective actions as norepinephrine transporter substrates. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2003 Oct;307(1):138-45. Epub 2003 Sep 3. [PubMed:12954796]
Details5. Alpha-2C adrenergic receptor
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Yes
Actions
Agonist
General Function
Protein homodimerization activity
Specific Function
Alpha-2 adrenergic receptors mediate the catecholamine-induced inhibition of adenylate cyclase through the action of G proteins.
Gene Name
ADRA2C
Uniprot ID
P18825
Uniprot Name
Alpha-2C adrenergic receptor
Molecular Weight
49521.585 Da
References
  1. Sulzer D, Sonders MS, Poulsen NW, Galli A: Mechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: a review. Prog Neurobiol. 2005 Apr;75(6):406-33. [PubMed:15955613]
  2. Kobayashi S, Endou M, Sakuraya F, Matsuda N, Zhang XH, Azuma M, Echigo N, Kemmotsu O, Hattori Y, Gando S: The sympathomimetic actions of l-ephedrine and d-pseudoephedrine: direct receptor activation or norepinephrine release? Anesth Analg. 2003 Nov;97(5):1239-45. [PubMed:14570629]
  3. Rothman RB, Vu N, Partilla JS, Roth BL, Hufeisen SJ, Compton-Toth BA, Birkes J, Young R, Glennon RA: In vitro characterization of ephedrine-related stereoisomers at biogenic amine transporters and the receptorome reveals selective actions as norepinephrine transporter substrates. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2003 Oct;307(1):138-45. Epub 2003 Sep 3. [PubMed:12954796]
Details6. Amine oxidase [flavin-containing] A
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Yes
Actions
Inhibitor
General Function
Serotonin binding
Specific Function
Catalyzes the oxidative deamination of biogenic and xenobiotic amines and has important functions in the metabolism of neuroactive and vasoactive amines in the central nervous system and peripheral...
Gene Name
MAOA
Uniprot ID
P21397
Uniprot Name
Amine oxidase [flavin-containing] A
Molecular Weight
59681.27 Da
References
  1. Sulzer D, Sonders MS, Poulsen NW, Galli A: Mechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: a review. Prog Neurobiol. 2005 Apr;75(6):406-33. [PubMed:15955613]
  2. Ulus IH, Maher TJ, Wurtman RJ: Characterization of phentermine and related compounds as monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors. Biochem Pharmacol. 2000 Jun 15;59(12):1611-21. [PubMed:10799660]
Details7. Amine oxidase [flavin-containing] B
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Yes
Actions
Inhibitor
General Function
Primary amine oxidase activity
Specific Function
Catalyzes the oxidative deamination of biogenic and xenobiotic amines and has important functions in the metabolism of neuroactive and vasoactive amines in the central nervous system and peripheral...
Gene Name
MAOB
Uniprot ID
P27338
Uniprot Name
Amine oxidase [flavin-containing] B
Molecular Weight
58762.475 Da
References
  1. Sulzer D, Sonders MS, Poulsen NW, Galli A: Mechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: a review. Prog Neurobiol. 2005 Apr;75(6):406-33. [PubMed:15955613]
  2. Ulus IH, Maher TJ, Wurtman RJ: Characterization of phentermine and related compounds as monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors. Biochem Pharmacol. 2000 Jun 15;59(12):1611-21. [PubMed:10799660]
Details8. Beta-1 adrenergic receptor
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Yes
Actions
Agonist
General Function
Receptor signaling protein activity
Specific Function
Beta-adrenergic receptors mediate the catecholamine-induced activation of adenylate cyclase through the action of G proteins. This receptor binds epinephrine and norepinephrine with approximately e...
Gene Name
ADRB1
Uniprot ID
P08588
Uniprot Name
Beta-1 adrenergic receptor
Molecular Weight
51322.1 Da
References
  1. Vansal SS, Feller DR: Direct effects of ephedrine isomers on human beta-adrenergic receptor subtypes. Biochem Pharmacol. 1999 Sep 1;58(5):807-10. [PubMed:10449190]
Details9. Beta-2 adrenergic receptor
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Yes
Actions
Agonist
General Function
Protein homodimerization activity
Specific Function
Beta-adrenergic receptors mediate the catecholamine-induced activation of adenylate cyclase through the action of G proteins. The beta-2-adrenergic receptor binds epinephrine with an approximately ...
Gene Name
ADRB2
Uniprot ID
P07550
Uniprot Name
Beta-2 adrenergic receptor
Molecular Weight
46458.32 Da
References
  1. Vansal SS, Feller DR: Direct effects of ephedrine isomers on human beta-adrenergic receptor subtypes. Biochem Pharmacol. 1999 Sep 1;58(5):807-10. [PubMed:10449190]
Details10. Beta-3 adrenergic receptor
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Yes
Actions
Agonist
General Function
Protein homodimerization activity
Specific Function
Beta-adrenergic receptors mediate the catecholamine-induced activation of adenylate cyclase through the action of G proteins. Beta-3 is involved in the regulation of lipolysis and thermogenesis.
Gene Name
ADRB3
Uniprot ID
P13945
Uniprot Name
Beta-3 adrenergic receptor
Molecular Weight
43518.615 Da
References
  1. Vansal SS, Feller DR: Direct effects of ephedrine isomers on human beta-adrenergic receptor subtypes. Biochem Pharmacol. 1999 Sep 1;58(5):807-10. [PubMed:10449190]
Details11. Sodium-dependent serotonin transporter
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Yes
Actions
Negative modulator
General Function
Serotonin:sodium symporter activity
Specific Function
Serotonin transporter whose primary function in the central nervous system involves the regulation of serotonergic signaling via transport of serotonin molecules from the synaptic cleft back into t...
Gene Name
SLC6A4
Uniprot ID
P31645
Uniprot Name
Sodium-dependent serotonin transporter
Molecular Weight
70324.165 Da
References
  1. Wee S, Ordway GA, Woolverton WL: Reinforcing effect of pseudoephedrine isomers and the mechanism of action. Eur J Pharmacol. 2004 Jun 16;493(1-3):117-25. [PubMed:15189772]
  2. Fleckenstein AE, Volz TJ, Riddle EL, Gibb JW, Hanson GR: New insights into the mechanism of action of amphetamines. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 2007;47:681-98. [PubMed:17209801]
Details12. Synaptic vesicular amine transporter
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Yes
Actions
Inhibitor
General Function
Monoamine transmembrane transporter activity
Specific Function
Involved in the ATP-dependent vesicular transport of biogenic amine neurotransmitters. Pumps cytosolic monoamines including dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, and histamine into synaptic vesicles...
Gene Name
SLC18A2
Uniprot ID
Q05940
Uniprot Name
Synaptic vesicular amine transporter
Molecular Weight
55712.075 Da
References
  1. Sulzer D, Sonders MS, Poulsen NW, Galli A: Mechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: a review. Prog Neurobiol. 2005 Apr;75(6):406-33. [PubMed:15955613]
  2. Henry JP, Sagne C, Bedet C, Gasnier B: The vesicular monoamine transporter: from chromaffin granule to brain. Neurochem Int. 1998 Mar;32(3):227-46. [PubMed:9587917]
  3. Fleckenstein AE, Volz TJ, Riddle EL, Gibb JW, Hanson GR: New insights into the mechanism of action of amphetamines. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 2007;47:681-98. [PubMed:17209801]
Details13. Chromaffin granule amine transporter
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Yes
Actions
Inhibitor
General Function
Serotonin transmembrane transporter activity
Specific Function
Involved in the transport of biogenic monoamines, such as serotonin, from the cytoplasm into the secretory vesicles of neuroendocrine and endocrine cells.
Gene Name
SLC18A1
Uniprot ID
P54219
Uniprot Name
Chromaffin granule amine transporter
Molecular Weight
56256.71 Da
References
  1. Sulzer D, Sonders MS, Poulsen NW, Galli A: Mechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: a review. Prog Neurobiol. 2005 Apr;75(6):406-33. [PubMed:15955613]
  2. Henry JP, Sagne C, Bedet C, Gasnier B: The vesicular monoamine transporter: from chromaffin granule to brain. Neurochem Int. 1998 Mar;32(3):227-46. [PubMed:9587917]
  3. Fleckenstein AE, Volz TJ, Riddle EL, Gibb JW, Hanson GR: New insights into the mechanism of action of amphetamines. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 2007;47:681-98. [PubMed:17209801]

Drug created on July 06, 2007 13:55 / Updated on March 30, 2020 22:56

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