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Properties

Spectra

Taxonomy

Ephedra

Targets (13)Biointeractions (13)

Identification

Name

Ephedra

Accession Number

DB01363

Type

Small Molecule

Groups

Approved, Nutraceutical, Withdrawn

Description

Ephedra is an alkaloid chemical compound traditionally obtained from the plant Ephedra sinica. The sale of ephedra-containing supplements was banned in the United States in 2004. The drug is still sold in Canada in OTC formulations.

Synonyms

Chinese jointfir
Indian jointfir
Ma huang

Prescription Products

Name	Dosage	Strength	Route	Labeller	Marketing Start	Marketing End
Congest-ease	Capsule	8 mg	Oral	Puresource Inc.	Not applicable	Not applicable
H.O. Formula With M/h	Tablet	8 mg	Oral	Abundance Naturally Ltd	Not applicable	Not applicable

Over the Counter Products

Name	Dosage	Strength	Route	Labeller	Marketing Start	Marketing End
Chi Formula	Capsule	4.2 mg	Oral	Natures Sunshine Products, Inc.	1995-12-31	2006-07-10
Citrivate	Capsule	84 mg	Oral	Great Canadian Lifestyles Co.	2001-07-13	2002-09-03
Decongestionnant - Cap Orl	Capsule	250 mg	Oral	Laboratoire Lalco Inc.	1997-01-20	2002-09-05
Dp Formula	Tablet	107 mg	Oral	Pep Products Inc.	2000-03-01	2003-01-13
Dp Formula - 133mg Tab	Tablet	133 mg	Oral	Pep Products Inc.	1994-12-31	2003-01-13
Ephedra	Capsule	8 mg	Oral	Natural Balance	2002-01-14	2009-08-17
Ephedra	Capsule	8 mg	Oral	Champion's Choice Advanced Nutrition Inc.	1997-06-11	1999-08-28
Ephedra	Capsule	300 mg	Oral	Kaizen Inc.	1997-04-22	1999-03-15
Ephedra - Cap 300mg	Capsule	300 mg	Oral	Nutrion Health & Fitness Inc.	1996-12-31	1999-08-28
Ephedra -tab 100mg	Tablet	100 mg	Oral	Vita Health Products Inc	1997-09-08	2002-07-31

Mixture Products

Name	Ingredients	Dosage	Route	Labeller	Marketing Start	Marketing End
Dr. Miller's Formula No. 1	Ephedra (280 mg) + Willow bark (280 mg)	Tablet	Oral	Lite & Rite Inc.	1994-12-31	1998-06-09
Herbal Cold and Flu Formula - Tab	Ephedra (8 mg) + Salix alba bark (3 g)	Tablet	Oral	Quest Vitamins A Div Of Purity Life Health Products	1995-12-31	1999-08-08

International/Other Brands

Ephedra vulgaris / Sinueaze

Categories

UNII

D0P20CT40D

CAS number

Not Available

Weight

Not Available

Chemical Formula

Not Available

InChI Key

Not Available

InChI

Not Available

IUPAC Name

Not Available

SMILES

Not Available

Pharmacology

Indication

Ephedra is widely used by athletes, despite a lack of evidence that it enhances athletic performance. Ephedra has also been used for weight loss.

Pharmacodynamics

Not Available

Mechanism of action

The alkaloids ephedrine and pseudoephedrine are the active constituents of Ephedra. Pseudoephedrine is used in over-the-counter decongestants. Derivatives of ephedrine are used to treat low blood pressure, but alternatives with reduced cardiovascular risk have replaced it for treating asthma. Ephedrine is also considered a performance-enhancing drug and is prohibited in most competitive sports. Ephedrine is a sympathomimetic amine - that is, its principal mechanism of action relies on its direct and indirect actions on the adrenergic receptor system, which is part of the sympathetic nervous system. Ephedrine increases post-synaptic noradrenergic receptor activity by (weakly) directly activating post-synaptic α-receptors and β-receptors, but the bulk of its effect comes from the pre-synaptic neuron being unable to distinguish between real adrenaline or noradrenaline from ephedrine. The ephedrine, mixed with noradrenaline, is transported through the noradrenaline reuptake complex and packaged (along with real noradrenaline) into vesicles that reside at the terminal button of a nerve cell. Ephedrine's action as an agonist at most major noradrenaline receptors and its ability to increase the release of both dopamine and to a lesser extent, serotonin by the same mechanism is presumed to have a major role in its mechanism of action.

Target	Actions	Organism
ASodium-dependent dopamine transporter	negative modulator	Humans
ASodium-dependent noradrenaline transporter	negative modulator	Humans
AAlpha-2A adrenergic receptor	agonist	Humans
AAlpha-2B adrenergic receptor	agonist	Humans
AAlpha-2C adrenergic receptor	agonist	Humans
AAmine oxidase [flavin-containing] A	inhibitor	Humans
AAmine oxidase [flavin-containing] B	inhibitor	Humans
ABeta-1 adrenergic receptor	agonist	Humans
ABeta-2 adrenergic receptor	agonist	Humans
ABeta-3 adrenergic receptor	agonist	Humans
ASodium-dependent serotonin transporter	negative modulator	Humans
ASynaptic vesicular amine transporter	inhibitor	Humans
AChromaffin granule amine transporter	inhibitor	Humans

Absorption

Not Available

Volume of distribution

Not Available

Protein binding

Not Available

Metabolism

Not Available

Route of elimination

Not Available

Half life

Not Available

Clearance

Not Available

Toxicity

Not Available

Affected organisms

Humans and other mammals

Pathways

Not Available

Pharmacogenomic Effects/ADRs

Not Available

Interactions

Drug Interactions

Drug	Interaction
1-(3-Mercapto-2-Methyl-Propionyl)-Pyrrolidine-2-Carboxylic Acid	The risk or severity of hypertension can be increased when Ephedra is combined with 1-(3-Mercapto-2-Methyl-Propionyl)-Pyrrolidine-2-Carboxylic Acid.
1-benzylimidazole	The risk or severity of hypertension can be increased when Ephedra is combined with 1-benzylimidazole.
2,4-thiazolidinedione	The therapeutic efficacy of 2,4-thiazolidinedione can be decreased when used in combination with Ephedra.
2,5-Dimethoxy-4-ethylamphetamine	The risk or severity of hypertension can be increased when Ephedra is combined with 2,5-Dimethoxy-4-ethylamphetamine.
2,5-Dimethoxy-4-ethylthioamphetamine	The risk or severity of hypertension can be increased when Ephedra is combined with 2,5-Dimethoxy-4-ethylthioamphetamine.
3,4-Methylenedioxyamphetamine	The risk or severity of hypertension can be increased when Ephedra is combined with 3,4-Methylenedioxyamphetamine.
4-Bromo-2,5-dimethoxyamphetamine	The risk or severity of hypertension can be increased when Ephedra is combined with 4-Bromo-2,5-dimethoxyamphetamine.
4-Methoxyamphetamine	The risk or severity of hypertension can be increased when Ephedra is combined with 4-Methoxyamphetamine.
5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine	The risk or severity of hypertension can be increased when Ephedra is combined with 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine.
Abediterol	The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Ephedra is combined with Abediterol.

Food Interactions

Not Available

References

General References

Gurley BJ, Wang P, Gardner SF: Ephedrine-type alkaloid content of nutritional supplements containing Ephedra sinica (Ma-huang) as determined by high performance liquid chromatography. J Pharm Sci. 1998 Dec;87(12):1547-53. [PubMed:10189265]
Abourashed EA, El-Alfy AT, Khan IA, Walker L: Ephedra in perspective--a current review. Phytother Res. 2003 Aug;17(7):703-12. [PubMed:12916063]
Haller CA, Benowitz NL: Adverse cardiovascular and central nervous system events associated with dietary supplements containing ephedra alkaloids. N Engl J Med. 2000 Dec 21;343(25):1833-8. [PubMed:11117974]
Bent S, Tiedt TN, Odden MC, Shlipak MG: The relative safety of ephedra compared with other herbal products. Ann Intern Med. 2003 Mar 18;138(6):468-71. [PubMed:12639079]

External Links

PubChem Substance: 46504840
PharmGKB: PA164777031
Drugs.com: Drugs.com Drug Page
PDRhealth: PDRhealth Drug Page
Wikipedia: Ephedra

AHFS Codes

12:12.12 — Alpha-and Beta-adrenergic Agonists
92:01.00* — Herbs and Natural Products
12:12.00 — Sympathomimetic (Adrenergic) Agents

Clinical Trials

Clinical Trials: Not Available

Pharmacoeconomics

Manufacturers

Not Available

Packagers

Not Available

Dosage forms

Form	Route	Strength
Capsule	Oral	4.2 mg
Capsule	Oral	84 mg
Tablet	Oral	107 mg
Tablet	Oral	133 mg
Capsule	Oral	300 mg
Tablet	Oral	100 mg
Capsule	Oral	250 mg
Capsule	Oral	133.4 mg
Capsule	Oral	8 mg
Tablet	Oral	8 mg
Capsule	Oral	10 mg
Kit; liquid	Oral	10 mg
Tablet	Oral
Capsule	Oral	100 mg
Capsule	Oral	680 mg
Capsule	Oral	125 mg
Capsule	Oral	167.5 mg
Capsule	Oral	4 mg
Capsule	Oral	7.5 mg
Capsule	Oral	10.8 mg

Prices

Not Available

Patents

Not Available

Properties

State: Solid
Experimental Properties: Not Available
Predicted Properties: Not Available
Predicted ADMET features: Not Available

Spectra

Mass Spec (NIST): Not Available
Spectra: Not Available

Taxonomy

Classification: Not classified

Targets

Details1. Sodium-dependent dopamine transporter

Kind: Protein
Organism: Humans
Pharmacological action: Yes
Actions: Negative modulator

General Function: Monoamine transmembrane transporter activity
Specific Function: Amine transporter. Terminates the action of dopamine by its high affinity sodium-dependent reuptake into presynaptic terminals.
Gene Name: SLC6A3
Uniprot ID: Q01959
Uniprot Name: Sodium-dependent dopamine transporter
Molecular Weight: 68494.255 Da

References

Sulzer D, Sonders MS, Poulsen NW, Galli A: Mechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: a review. Prog Neurobiol. 2005 Apr;75(6):406-33. [PubMed:15955613]
Wee S, Ordway GA, Woolverton WL: Reinforcing effect of pseudoephedrine isomers and the mechanism of action. Eur J Pharmacol. 2004 Jun 16;493(1-3):117-25. [PubMed:15189772]
Rothman RB, Vu N, Partilla JS, Roth BL, Hufeisen SJ, Compton-Toth BA, Birkes J, Young R, Glennon RA: In vitro characterization of ephedrine-related stereoisomers at biogenic amine transporters and the receptorome reveals selective actions as norepinephrine transporter substrates. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2003 Oct;307(1):138-45. Epub 2003 Sep 3. [PubMed:12954796]
Fleckenstein AE, Volz TJ, Riddle EL, Gibb JW, Hanson GR: New insights into the mechanism of action of amphetamines. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 2007;47:681-98. [PubMed:17209801]
Haughey HM, Brown JM, Wilkins DG, Hanson GR, Fleckenstein AE: Differential effects of methamphetamine on Na(+)/Cl(-)-dependent transporters. Brain Res. 2000 Apr 28;863(1-2):59-65. [PubMed:10773193]

Details2. Sodium-dependent noradrenaline transporter

Kind: Protein
Organism: Humans
Pharmacological action: Yes
Actions: Negative modulator

General Function: Norepinephrine:sodium symporter activity
Specific Function: Amine transporter. Terminates the action of noradrenaline by its high affinity sodium-dependent reuptake into presynaptic terminals.
Gene Name: SLC6A2
Uniprot ID: P23975
Uniprot Name: Sodium-dependent noradrenaline transporter
Molecular Weight: 69331.42 Da

References

Wee S, Ordway GA, Woolverton WL: Reinforcing effect of pseudoephedrine isomers and the mechanism of action. Eur J Pharmacol. 2004 Jun 16;493(1-3):117-25. [PubMed:15189772]
Sulzer D, Sonders MS, Poulsen NW, Galli A: Mechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: a review. Prog Neurobiol. 2005 Apr;75(6):406-33. [PubMed:15955613]
Rothman RB, Vu N, Partilla JS, Roth BL, Hufeisen SJ, Compton-Toth BA, Birkes J, Young R, Glennon RA: In vitro characterization of ephedrine-related stereoisomers at biogenic amine transporters and the receptorome reveals selective actions as norepinephrine transporter substrates. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2003 Oct;307(1):138-45. Epub 2003 Sep 3. [PubMed:12954796]
Fleckenstein AE, Volz TJ, Riddle EL, Gibb JW, Hanson GR: New insights into the mechanism of action of amphetamines. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 2007;47:681-98. [PubMed:17209801]
Haughey HM, Brown JM, Wilkins DG, Hanson GR, Fleckenstein AE: Differential effects of methamphetamine on Na(+)/Cl(-)-dependent transporters. Brain Res. 2000 Apr 28;863(1-2):59-65. [PubMed:10773193]

Details3. Alpha-2A adrenergic receptor

Kind: Protein
Organism: Humans
Pharmacological action: Yes
Actions: Agonist

General Function: Thioesterase binding
Specific Function: Alpha-2 adrenergic receptors mediate the catecholamine-induced inhibition of adenylate cyclase through the action of G proteins. The rank order of potency for agonists of this receptor is oxymetazo...
Gene Name: ADRA2A
Uniprot ID: P08913
Uniprot Name: Alpha-2A adrenergic receptor
Molecular Weight: 48956.275 Da

References

Sulzer D, Sonders MS, Poulsen NW, Galli A: Mechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: a review. Prog Neurobiol. 2005 Apr;75(6):406-33. [PubMed:15955613]
Kobayashi S, Endou M, Sakuraya F, Matsuda N, Zhang XH, Azuma M, Echigo N, Kemmotsu O, Hattori Y, Gando S: The sympathomimetic actions of l-ephedrine and d-pseudoephedrine: direct receptor activation or norepinephrine release? Anesth Analg. 2003 Nov;97(5):1239-45. [PubMed:14570629]
Rothman RB, Vu N, Partilla JS, Roth BL, Hufeisen SJ, Compton-Toth BA, Birkes J, Young R, Glennon RA: In vitro characterization of ephedrine-related stereoisomers at biogenic amine transporters and the receptorome reveals selective actions as norepinephrine transporter substrates. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2003 Oct;307(1):138-45. Epub 2003 Sep 3. [PubMed:12954796]

Details4. Alpha-2B adrenergic receptor

Kind: Protein
Organism: Humans
Pharmacological action: Yes
Actions: Agonist

General Function: Epinephrine binding
Specific Function: Alpha-2 adrenergic receptors mediate the catecholamine-induced inhibition of adenylate cyclase through the action of G proteins. The rank order of potency for agonists of this receptor is clonidine...
Gene Name: ADRA2B
Uniprot ID: P18089
Uniprot Name: Alpha-2B adrenergic receptor
Molecular Weight: 49565.8 Da

References

Sulzer D, Sonders MS, Poulsen NW, Galli A: Mechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: a review. Prog Neurobiol. 2005 Apr;75(6):406-33. [PubMed:15955613]
Kobayashi S, Endou M, Sakuraya F, Matsuda N, Zhang XH, Azuma M, Echigo N, Kemmotsu O, Hattori Y, Gando S: The sympathomimetic actions of l-ephedrine and d-pseudoephedrine: direct receptor activation or norepinephrine release? Anesth Analg. 2003 Nov;97(5):1239-45. [PubMed:14570629]
Rothman RB, Vu N, Partilla JS, Roth BL, Hufeisen SJ, Compton-Toth BA, Birkes J, Young R, Glennon RA: In vitro characterization of ephedrine-related stereoisomers at biogenic amine transporters and the receptorome reveals selective actions as norepinephrine transporter substrates. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2003 Oct;307(1):138-45. Epub 2003 Sep 3. [PubMed:12954796]

Details5. Alpha-2C adrenergic receptor

Kind: Protein
Organism: Humans
Pharmacological action: Yes
Actions: Agonist

General Function: Protein homodimerization activity
Specific Function: Alpha-2 adrenergic receptors mediate the catecholamine-induced inhibition of adenylate cyclase through the action of G proteins.
Gene Name: ADRA2C
Uniprot ID: P18825
Uniprot Name: Alpha-2C adrenergic receptor
Molecular Weight: 49521.585 Da

References

Sulzer D, Sonders MS, Poulsen NW, Galli A: Mechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: a review. Prog Neurobiol. 2005 Apr;75(6):406-33. [PubMed:15955613]
Kobayashi S, Endou M, Sakuraya F, Matsuda N, Zhang XH, Azuma M, Echigo N, Kemmotsu O, Hattori Y, Gando S: The sympathomimetic actions of l-ephedrine and d-pseudoephedrine: direct receptor activation or norepinephrine release? Anesth Analg. 2003 Nov;97(5):1239-45. [PubMed:14570629]
Rothman RB, Vu N, Partilla JS, Roth BL, Hufeisen SJ, Compton-Toth BA, Birkes J, Young R, Glennon RA: In vitro characterization of ephedrine-related stereoisomers at biogenic amine transporters and the receptorome reveals selective actions as norepinephrine transporter substrates. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2003 Oct;307(1):138-45. Epub 2003 Sep 3. [PubMed:12954796]

Details6. Amine oxidase [flavin-containing] A

Kind: Protein
Organism: Humans
Pharmacological action: Yes
Actions: Inhibitor

General Function: Serotonin binding
Specific Function: Catalyzes the oxidative deamination of biogenic and xenobiotic amines and has important functions in the metabolism of neuroactive and vasoactive amines in the central nervous system and peripheral...
Gene Name: MAOA
Uniprot ID: P21397
Uniprot Name: Amine oxidase [flavin-containing] A
Molecular Weight: 59681.27 Da

References

Sulzer D, Sonders MS, Poulsen NW, Galli A: Mechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: a review. Prog Neurobiol. 2005 Apr;75(6):406-33. [PubMed:15955613]
Ulus IH, Maher TJ, Wurtman RJ: Characterization of phentermine and related compounds as monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors. Biochem Pharmacol. 2000 Jun 15;59(12):1611-21. [PubMed:10799660]

Details7. Amine oxidase [flavin-containing] B

Kind: Protein
Organism: Humans
Pharmacological action: Yes
Actions: Inhibitor

General Function: Primary amine oxidase activity
Specific Function: Catalyzes the oxidative deamination of biogenic and xenobiotic amines and has important functions in the metabolism of neuroactive and vasoactive amines in the central nervous system and peripheral...
Gene Name: MAOB
Uniprot ID: P27338
Uniprot Name: Amine oxidase [flavin-containing] B
Molecular Weight: 58762.475 Da

References

Sulzer D, Sonders MS, Poulsen NW, Galli A: Mechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: a review. Prog Neurobiol. 2005 Apr;75(6):406-33. [PubMed:15955613]
Ulus IH, Maher TJ, Wurtman RJ: Characterization of phentermine and related compounds as monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors. Biochem Pharmacol. 2000 Jun 15;59(12):1611-21. [PubMed:10799660]

Details8. Beta-1 adrenergic receptor

Kind: Protein
Organism: Humans
Pharmacological action: Yes
Actions: Agonist

General Function: Receptor signaling protein activity
Specific Function: Beta-adrenergic receptors mediate the catecholamine-induced activation of adenylate cyclase through the action of G proteins. This receptor binds epinephrine and norepinephrine with approximately e...
Gene Name: ADRB1
Uniprot ID: P08588
Uniprot Name: Beta-1 adrenergic receptor
Molecular Weight: 51322.1 Da

References

Vansal SS, Feller DR: Direct effects of ephedrine isomers on human beta-adrenergic receptor subtypes. Biochem Pharmacol. 1999 Sep 1;58(5):807-10. [PubMed:10449190]

Details9. Beta-2 adrenergic receptor

Kind: Protein
Organism: Humans
Pharmacological action: Yes
Actions: Agonist

General Function: Protein homodimerization activity
Specific Function: Beta-adrenergic receptors mediate the catecholamine-induced activation of adenylate cyclase through the action of G proteins. The beta-2-adrenergic receptor binds epinephrine with an approximately ...
Gene Name: ADRB2
Uniprot ID: P07550
Uniprot Name: Beta-2 adrenergic receptor
Molecular Weight: 46458.32 Da

References

Vansal SS, Feller DR: Direct effects of ephedrine isomers on human beta-adrenergic receptor subtypes. Biochem Pharmacol. 1999 Sep 1;58(5):807-10. [PubMed:10449190]

Details10. Beta-3 adrenergic receptor

Kind: Protein
Organism: Humans
Pharmacological action: Yes
Actions: Agonist

General Function: Protein homodimerization activity
Specific Function: Beta-adrenergic receptors mediate the catecholamine-induced activation of adenylate cyclase through the action of G proteins. Beta-3 is involved in the regulation of lipolysis and thermogenesis.
Gene Name: ADRB3
Uniprot ID: P13945
Uniprot Name: Beta-3 adrenergic receptor
Molecular Weight: 43518.615 Da

References

Vansal SS, Feller DR: Direct effects of ephedrine isomers on human beta-adrenergic receptor subtypes. Biochem Pharmacol. 1999 Sep 1;58(5):807-10. [PubMed:10449190]

Details11. Sodium-dependent serotonin transporter

Kind: Protein
Organism: Humans
Pharmacological action: Yes
Actions: Negative modulator

General Function: Serotonin:sodium symporter activity
Specific Function: Serotonin transporter whose primary function in the central nervous system involves the regulation of serotonergic signaling via transport of serotonin molecules from the synaptic cleft back into t...
Gene Name: SLC6A4
Uniprot ID: P31645
Uniprot Name: Sodium-dependent serotonin transporter
Molecular Weight: 70324.165 Da

References

Wee S, Ordway GA, Woolverton WL: Reinforcing effect of pseudoephedrine isomers and the mechanism of action. Eur J Pharmacol. 2004 Jun 16;493(1-3):117-25. [PubMed:15189772]
Fleckenstein AE, Volz TJ, Riddle EL, Gibb JW, Hanson GR: New insights into the mechanism of action of amphetamines. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 2007;47:681-98. [PubMed:17209801]

Details12. Synaptic vesicular amine transporter

Kind: Protein
Organism: Humans
Pharmacological action: Yes
Actions: Inhibitor

General Function: Monoamine transmembrane transporter activity
Specific Function: Involved in the ATP-dependent vesicular transport of biogenic amine neurotransmitters. Pumps cytosolic monoamines including dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, and histamine into synaptic vesicles...
Gene Name: SLC18A2
Uniprot ID: Q05940
Uniprot Name: Synaptic vesicular amine transporter
Molecular Weight: 55712.075 Da

References

Sulzer D, Sonders MS, Poulsen NW, Galli A: Mechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: a review. Prog Neurobiol. 2005 Apr;75(6):406-33. [PubMed:15955613]
Henry JP, Sagne C, Bedet C, Gasnier B: The vesicular monoamine transporter: from chromaffin granule to brain. Neurochem Int. 1998 Mar;32(3):227-46. [PubMed:9587917]
Fleckenstein AE, Volz TJ, Riddle EL, Gibb JW, Hanson GR: New insights into the mechanism of action of amphetamines. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 2007;47:681-98. [PubMed:17209801]

Details13. Chromaffin granule amine transporter

Kind: Protein
Organism: Humans
Pharmacological action: Yes
Actions: Inhibitor

General Function: Serotonin transmembrane transporter activity
Specific Function: Involved in the transport of biogenic monoamines, such as serotonin, from the cytoplasm into the secretory vesicles of neuroendocrine and endocrine cells.
Gene Name: SLC18A1
Uniprot ID: P54219
Uniprot Name: Chromaffin granule amine transporter
Molecular Weight: 56256.71 Da

References

Sulzer D, Sonders MS, Poulsen NW, Galli A: Mechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: a review. Prog Neurobiol. 2005 Apr;75(6):406-33. [PubMed:15955613]
Henry JP, Sagne C, Bedet C, Gasnier B: The vesicular monoamine transporter: from chromaffin granule to brain. Neurochem Int. 1998 Mar;32(3):227-46. [PubMed:9587917]
Fleckenstein AE, Volz TJ, Riddle EL, Gibb JW, Hanson GR: New insights into the mechanism of action of amphetamines. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 2007;47:681-98. [PubMed:17209801]

Drug created on July 06, 2007 13:55 / Updated on February 18, 2019 20:23